Jump to content

Attentional control

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Selective attention)
A person concentrating on their work
A person paying close visual attention to their use of a bottle opener, ignoring the other people around them

Attentional control, commonly referred to as concentration, refers to an individual's capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore.[1] It is also known as endogenous attention or executive attention. In lay terms, attentional control can be described as an individual's ability to concentrate. Primarily mediated by the frontal areas of the brain including the anterior cingulate cortex, attentional control and attentional shifting are thought to be closely related to other executive functions such as working memory.[2][3]

General overview of research

[edit]

Sources of attention in the brain create a system of three networks: alertness (maintaining awareness), orientation (information from sensory input), and executive control (resolving conflict).[2] These three networks have been studied using experimental designs involving adults, children, and monkeys, with and without abnormalities of attention.[4] Research designs include the Stroop task [5] and flanker task, which study executive control with analysis techniques including event-related functional magnetic resonance image (fMRI). While some research designs focus specifically on one aspect of attention (such as executive control), others experiments view several areas, which examine interactions between the alerting, orienting, and executive control networks.[4] More recently, the Attention Network Test (ANT), designed by Fan and Posner, has been used to obtain efficiency measures of the three networks, and allow their relationships to be examined. It was designed as a behavioural task simple enough to obtain data from children, patients, and animals.[6] The task requires participants to quickly respond to cues given on a computer screen, while having their attention fixated on a center target.[7]

Development

[edit]
See also: Neurobiological effects of physical exercise § Cognitive control and memory

Infancy

[edit]

Early researchers studying the development of the frontal cortex thought that it was functionally silent during the first year of life.[8] Similarly, early research suggested that infants aged one year or younger are completely passive in the allocation of their attention, and have no capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore.[9] This is shown, for example, in the phenomenon of 'sticky fixation', whereby infants are incapable of disengaging their attention from a particularly salient target.[10] Other research has suggested, however, that even very young infants do have some capacity to exercise control over their allocation of attention, albeit in a much more limited sense.[11][12]

Childhood

[edit]

As the frontal lobes mature,[13] children's capacity to exercise attentional control increases,[1] although attentional control abilities remain much poorer in children than they do in adults.[14] Some children show impaired development of attentional control abilities, thought to arise from the relatively slower development of frontal areas of the brain,[15] which sometimes results in a diagnosis of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

Elderly

[edit]

Some studies of aging and cognition focus on working memory processes and declines in attentional control. One study used fMRI measures during a Stroop task comparing neural activity of attentional control in younger (21–27 years) and older participants (60–75 years). Conditions included increased competition and increased conflict. Results showed evidence of decreases in responsiveness in brain areas associated with attentional control for the older group. This result suggests that older people may have decreases in their ability to utilize attentional control in their everyday lives.[16][17]

A major contributor to age-related decreased attentional control includes the weight of the brain. Several studies conclude that the brain experiences rapid weight loss after the age of 60. This loss of brain weight results from a decrease in cerebral white matter and gray matter.[18] White matter is the area in the brain responsible for exchanging information between gray matter areas.[19] Gray matter tissue in the central nervous system enables individuals to interact with the world and carry out highly skilled functions. Studies reveal that individuals who engage in physical activity increase the cortical volume of gray matter later in life, preventing age-related atrophy and promoting attentional control.[20] However, because most individuals' brains undergo pathological changes after the age of 80 or develop cardiac disease, neuron loss occurs and the brain volume decreases.[18]

Abnormal development

[edit]

Disrupted attentional control has been noted not just in the early development of conditions for which the core deficit is related to attention such as ADHD,[21] but also in conditions such as autism[22] and anxiety.[23] Disrupted attentional control has also been reported in infants born preterm,[24] as well as in infants with genetic disorders such as Down syndrome and Williams syndrome.[25] Several groups have also reported impaired attentional control early in development in children from lower socioeconomic status families.[26]

The patterns of disrupted attentional control relate to findings of disrupted performance on executive functions tasks such as working memory across a wide number of different disorder groups.[1] The question of why the executive functions appear to be disrupted across so many different disorder groups remains, however, poorly understood.

Relevance to mental illness

[edit]

Studies have shown that there is a high probability that those with low attentional control also experience other mental conditions. Low attentional control is more common among those with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), "a disorder with persistent age-inappropriate symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that are sufficient to cause impairment in major life activities".[27] Low attentional control is also common in individuals with schizophrenia and [28] Alzheimer's disease,[29] those with social anxiety, trait anxiety, and depression,[30] and attention difficulties following a stroke.[28] Individuals respond quicker and have stronger overall executive control when they have low levels of anxiety and depression.[31] Weak attentional control is also thought to increase chances of developing a psychopathological condition, as these individuals have disrupted threat processing and magnified emotional responses to threat.[32] More researchers are accounting for attentional control in studies that might not necessarily focus on attention by having participants fill out an Attentional Control Scale (ACS)[30] or a Cognitive Attentional Syndrome-1 (CAS1),[32] both of which are self-reporting questionnaires that measure attentional focus and shifting.[30] Researchers suggest that people should use experimental and longitudinal designs to address the relationship between ACS, emotional functioning, CAS, and attention to threat. This is due to the increasing problematic occurrences experts are seeing in the field regarding attentional control in relation to other mental illnesses.[28]

Attention problems are also characteristic of anxiety disorders like PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder). A recent review revealed that 61.2% of current studies found that participants who experienced PTSD suffered from significant attentional control problems.[33] These problems caused by PTSD can lead to the development of an attentional bias, which causes a person to process emotionally negative information preferentially over emotionally positive information.[34] Patients who suffer from PTSD commonly struggle to concentrate on certain tasks for longer periods of time, allowing intrusive thoughts to override their current focus.[35] This interference can be caused by many different factors, but it is most commonly triggered by emotional cues, particularly the emotion of fear. Attention is considered a gateway function to advanced cognitive processes such as memory and learning, and attentional interference can cause such cognitive processes to decrease.[33] In recent years, attentional control therapies have been used to improve attentional control in patients who suffer from PTSD. More recently, yoga and meditation were found to positivity affect attentional control in patients who have experienced PTSD.[36]

Applications

[edit]

Performance

[edit]

Attentional control theory focuses on anxiety and cognitive performance. The assumption of this theory is that the effects of anxiety on attentional control are key to understanding the relationship between anxiety and performance. In general, anxiety inhibits attentional control on a specific task by impairing processing efficiency.[37] There are three functions associated with this theory. The inhibition function prevents stimuli unrelated to a task and responses from disrupting performance. The shifting function is used to allocate attention to the stimuli that are most relevant to the task. The updating function is used to update and monitor information in working memory.[37][38] There are three main hypotheses associated with attentional control theory. First, the efficiency of the central executive is impaired by anxiety. Second, anxiety impairs the inhibition function, and third, anxiety impairs the shifting function.[39] Studies related to attentional control and performance take two differing approaches. Specifically, research on attentional capture has two modes: voluntary and reflexive. The voluntary mode is a top down approach where attention is shifted according to high-level cognitive processes. The reflexive mode is a bottom up approach where attention shifts involuntarily based on a stimulus's attention attracting properties.[40] These modes are important to understanding how attentional control works.

Mindfulness

[edit]

Even four days of mindfulness meditation training can significantly improve visuo-spatial processing, working memory and executive functioning.[41][42] However, research has shown mixed results surrounding whether mindfulness effects attentional control directly. Participants did tasks of sustained attention, inhibition, switching, and object detection. These tasks were done before and after an 8-week mindfulness based stress reduction course (MBSR), and were compared to a control group. There were no significant differences between the groups, meaning that the MBSR course did not affect attentional control.[43] However, an active randomized controlled trial showed that a mobile-based mindfulness app with extensive self-assessment features may have long-term benefits for attentional control in healthy participants.[44] Mindfulness influences non-directed attention and other things like emotional well-being.[43]

Learning

[edit]

Modular approaches view cognitive development as a mosaic-like process, according to which cognitive faculties develop separately according to genetically predetermined maturational timetables. Prominent authors who take a modular approach to cognitive development include Jerry Fodor, Elizabeth Spelke and Steven Pinker. In contrast, other authors such as Annette Karmiloff-Smith, Mark Johnson and Linda Smith have instead advocated taking a more interactive or dynamical systems approaches to cognitive development. According to these approaches, which are known as neuroconstructivist approaches, cognitive systems interact over developmental time as certain cognitive faculties are required for the subsequent acquisition of other faculties in other areas.[45][citation needed]

Amongst authors who take neuroconstructivist approaches to development, particular importance has been attached to attentional control, since it is thought to be a domain-general process that may influence the subsequent acquisition of other skills in other areas.[46] The ability to regulate and direct attention releases the child from the constraints of only responding to environmental events, and means they are able to actively guide their attention towards the information-rich areas key for learning. For example, a number of authors have looked at the relationship between an infant's capacity to exercise attentional control and their subsequent performance during language acquisition.[47][48] Working memory capacity has been studied to understand how memory functions. The ability to predict the effectiveness of someone's working memory capacity comes from attentional control mechanisms. These mechanisms help with the regulation of goals, behavior, and outside distractions, which are all important for effective learning.[49][50]

Visual attentional control

[edit]

Our brains have distinct attention systems that have been shaped throughout time by evolution. Visual attention operates mainly on three different representations: location[51] ,[52] feature, and object-based.[53][54] The spatial separation between two objects has an effect on attention. People can selectively pay attention to one of two objects in the same general location.[55] Research has also been done on attention to non-object based things like motion. When directing attention to a feature like motion, neuronal activity increases in areas specific for the feature. When visually searching for a non-spatial feature or a perceptual feature, selectively enhancing the sensitivity to that specific feature plays a role in directing attention.[56] When people are told to look for motion, then motion will capture their attention, but attention is not captured by motion if they are told to look for color.[40][57]

Spatial focus of attention

[edit]
See also: Object based attention

According to fMRI studies of the brain and behavioral observations, visual attention can be moved independently of moving eye position. Studies have had participants fixate their eyes on a central point and measured brain activity as stimuli were presented outside the visual fixation point. fMRI findings show changes in brain activity correlated with the shift in spatial attention to the various stimuli. Behavioral studies have also shown that when a person knows where a stimulus is likely to appear, their attention can shift to it more rapidly and process it better.[58]

Other studies have demonstrated that perceptual and cognitive load affect spatial focusing of attention. These two mechanisms interact oppositely so that when cognitive load is decreased, perceptual load must be high to increase spatial attention focusing.[59]

Auditory alertness

[edit]

The cocktail party effect is the phenomenon that a person hears his or her name even when not attending to the conversation. To study this, a screening measure for attentional control was given that tested a person's ability to keep track of words while also doing math problems. Participants were separated into two groups---low and high span attentional control ability groups. They listened to two word lists read simultaneously by a male and a female voice and were told to ignore the male voice. Their name was read by the "ignored" male voice. Low span people were more likely to hear their name compared to high span people. This result suggests that people with lower attentional control ability have more trouble inhibiting information from the surrounding environment.[60]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Astle, D. E.; Scerif, G. (2009). "Using Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience to Study Behavioral and Attentional Control". Developmental Psychobiology. 51 (2): 107–118. doi:10.1002/dev.20350. PMID 18973175.
  2. ^ a b Posner, M. I.; Petersen, S. E. (1990). "The attention system of the human brain". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 13: 25–42. doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.13.030190.000325. PMID 2183676. S2CID 2995749.
  3. ^ Astle, D. E.; Scerif, G. (2011). "Interactions between attention and visual short-term memory (VSTM): What can be learnt from individual and developmental differences?". Neuropsychologia. 49 (6): 1435–1445. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.12.001. PMID 21185321. S2CID 5429116.
  4. ^ a b Fan, Jan; et al. (2002). "Testing the Efficiency and Interdependence of Attenional Networks". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 14 (3): 340–347. doi:10.1162/089892902317361886. PMID 11970796. S2CID 12681459.
  5. ^ Markman, Art (11 September 2012). "Disgust, Morality, and Attention". Ulterior Motives. Retrieved 21 October 2012.
  6. ^ Fan, J.; McCandliss, B.; Sommer, T.; Raz, A.; Posner, M. (2002). "Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 14 (3): 340–347. doi:10.1162/089892902317361886. PMID 11970796. S2CID 12681459.
  7. ^ Adólfsdóttir, Steinunn; et al. (2008). "The Attention Network Test: A Characteristic Pattern of Deficits in Children with ADHD". Behavioral and Brain Functions. 4 (1): 9. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-4-9. PMC 2265730. PMID 18269768.
  8. ^ Bell, M. A.; Wolfe, C. D. (2007). "Changes in brain functioning from infancy to early childhood: Evidence from EEG power and coherence during working memory tasks". Developmental Neuropsychology. 31 (1): 21–38. doi:10.1207/s15326942dn3101_2. PMID 17305436.
  9. ^ Colombo, J (2001). "The development of visual attention in infancy". Annual Review of Psychology. 52: 337–367. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.337. hdl:1808/94. PMID 11148309.
  10. ^ Hood, B. M.; Atkinson, J. (1993). "Disengaging visual attention in the infant and adult". Infant Behavior & Development. 16 (4): 405–422. doi:10.1016/0163-6383(93)80001-o.
  11. ^ Johnson, M. H. (1995). "The inhibition of automatic saccades in early infancy". Developmental Psychobiology. 28 (5): 281–291. doi:10.1002/dev.420280504. PMID 7672460.
  12. ^ Colombo, J.; Cheatham, C. L. (2006). "The emergence and basis of endogenous attention in infancy and early childhood". Advances in Child Development and Behavior. 34: 283–322. doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(06)80010-8. ISBN 9780120097340. PMID 17120808.
  13. ^ Gogtay, N.; Giedd, J. N.; Lusk, L.; Hayashi, K. M.; Greenstein, D.; Vaituzis, A. C.; Nugent Iii, T. F.; Herman, D. H.; Clasen, L. S.; et al. (2004). "Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (21): 8174–8179. doi:10.1073/pnas.0402680101. PMC 419576. PMID 15148381.
  14. ^ Davidson, M. C.; Amso, D.; Cruess Anderson, L.; Diamond, A. (2006). "Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching". Neuropsychologia. 44 (11): 2037–2078. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006. PMC 1513793. PMID 16580701.
  15. ^ Shaw, P. Lerch; Greenstein, D.; Sharp, W.; Clasen, L.; Evans, A.; Giedd, J.; Xavier Castellanos, F.; Rapoport, J. (2006). "Longitudinal Mapping of Cortical Thickness and Clinical Outcome in Children and Adolescents With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Archives of General Psychiatry. 63 (5): 540–549. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.63.5.540. PMID 16651511.
  16. ^ Milham, M.; Erickson, K.; Banich, M.; Kramer, A.; Webb, A.; Wszalek, T.; Cohen, N. (2002). "Attentional control in the aging brain: Insights from an fMRI study of the stroop task". Brain Cogn. 49 (3): 277–296. doi:10.1006/brcg.2001.1501. PMID 12139955. S2CID 2283825.
  17. ^ Banich, M. (2009). "Executive function: The search for an integrated account". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 18: 89–94. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01615.x. S2CID 15935419.
  18. ^ a b Colloca, Giuseppe; Santoro, Michaela; Gambassi, Giovanni (2010-09-01). "Age-related physiologic changes and perioperative management of elderly patients". Surgical Oncology. Perioperative Management of Pain in Elderly Cancer Patients. 19 (3): 124–130. doi:10.1016/j.suronc.2009.11.011. ISSN 0960-7404. PMID 20004566.
  19. ^ Zhao, J.; Ding, X.; Du, Y.; Wang, X.; Men, G. (October 2019). "Mikkelsen Library | Augustana University". Brain and Behavior. 9 (10): e01407. doi:10.1002/brb3.1407. PMC 6790327. PMID 31512413. ProQuest 2304682979. Retrieved 2023-10-18.
  20. ^ Erickson, Kirk I.; Leckie, Regina L.; Weinstein, Andrea M. (2014-09-01). "Physical activity, fitness, and gray matter volume". Neurobiology of Aging. International Conference on Nutrition and the Brain. 35: S20–S28. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.03.034. ISSN 0197-4580. PMC 4094356. PMID 24952993.
  21. ^ Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S.; Koerting, J.; Smith, E.; McCann, D. C.; Thompson, M. (2011). "Early detection and intervention for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 11 (4): 557–563. doi:10.1586/ern.11.39. hdl:1854/LU-2084124. PMID 21469928. S2CID 207221148.
  22. ^ Elsabbagh, M.; Volein, A.; Holmboe, K.; Tucker, L.; Csibra, G.; Baron-Cohen, S.; Bolton, P.; Charman, T.; Baird, G.; et al. (2009). "Visual orienting in the early broader autism phenotype: disengagement and facilitation". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 50 (5): 637–642. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02051.x. PMC 3272379. PMID 19298466.
  23. ^ Rothbart, M. K.; Ellis, L. K.; Rueda, M. R.; Posner, M. I. (2003). "Developing mechanisms of temperamental effortful control". Journal of Personality. 71 (6): 1113–1143. doi:10.1111/1467-6494.7106009. PMID 14633060.
  24. ^ Van, E; de Weijer-Bergsma, E.; Wijnroks, L.; Jongmans, M. J. (2008). "Attention development in infants and preschool children born preterm: A review". Infant Behavior and Development. 31 (3): 333–351. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.12.003. PMID 18294695.
  25. ^ Cornish, K.; Scerif, G.; Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2007). "Tracing syndrome-specific trajectories of attention across the lifespan". Cortex. 43 (6): 672–685. doi:10.1016/S0010-9452(08)70497-0. PMID 17710820. S2CID 14128174.
  26. ^ Welsh, J. A.; Nix, R. L.; Blair, C.; Bierman, K. L.; Nelson, K. E. (2010). "The Development of Cognitive Skills and Gains in Academic School Readiness for Children From Low-Income Families". Journal of Educational Psychology. 102 (1): 43–53. doi:10.1037/a0016738. PMC 2856933. PMID 20411025.
  27. ^ Mash, Eric, J. (2013). Abnormal Child Psychology. Wadsworth.
  28. ^ a b c Durham, N.C. (24 February 2000). "New Study Identifies Brain Centers For Attention Control". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
  29. ^ Coubard, Olivier; et al. (May 2011). "Attentional Control in Normal Aging and Alzheimer's Disease". Neuropsychology. 25 (3): 353–367. doi:10.1037/a0022058. PMID 21417533.
  30. ^ a b c Bowler, Jennifer; Et. at. (10 September 2012). "A Comparison of Cognitive Bias Modification for Interpretation and Computerized Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Effects on Anxiety, Depression, Attentional Control, and Interpretive Bias". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 80 (6): 1021–33. doi:10.1037/a0029932. PMC 3516492. PMID 22963595.
  31. ^ Sarter, Martin; Giovanna Paolone (December 2011). "Deficits in Attentional Control: Cholinergic Mechanisms and Circuitry-Based Treatment Approaches". Behavioral Neuroscience. 125 (6): 825–835. doi:10.1037/a0026227. PMC 3235713. PMID 22122146.
  32. ^ a b Fergus, Thomas; et al. (August 2012). "Attentional Control Moderates the Relationship between Activation of the Cognitive Attentional Syndrome and Symptoms of Psychopathology". Personality and Individual Differences. 53 (3): 213–217. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.03.017.
  33. ^ a b Punski‐Hoogervorst, Janne L.; Engel‐Yeger, Batya; Avital, Avi (20 February 2023). "Attention deficits as a key player in the symptomatology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A review". Journal of Neuroscience Research. 101 (7): 1068–1085. doi:10.1002/jnr.25177. ISSN 0360-4012. PMID 36807926. S2CID 257077649.
  34. ^ Schoorl, Maartje; Putman, Peter; Van Der Werff, Steven; Van Der Does, A. J. Willem (2014-03-01). "Attentional bias and attentional control in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder". Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 28 (2): 203–210. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.10.001. ISSN 0887-6185. PMID 24291395.
  35. ^ Block, Stefanie R.; Liberzon, Israel (2016-10-01). "Attentional processes in posttraumatic stress disorder and the associated changes in neural functioning". Experimental Neurology. Special Issue: New Perspectives in PTSD. 284 (Pt B): 153–167. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.05.009. ISSN 0014-4886. PMID 27178007. S2CID 2937082.
  36. ^ Cramer, Holger; Anheyer, Dennis; Saha, Felix J.; Dobos, Gustav (2018-03-22). "Yoga for posttraumatic stress disorder – a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Psychiatry. 18 (1): 72. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1650-x. ISSN 1471-244X. PMC 5863799. PMID 29566652.
  37. ^ a b Eysenck, M.; Kerakshan, N.; Santos, R.; Galvo, M. (2007). "Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory". Emotion. 7 (2): 336–353. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336. PMID 17516812. S2CID 33462708.
  38. ^ Miyake, A.; Priedman, N.; Emerson, M.; Witzki, A.; Howerter, A. (2000). "The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis". Cognitive Psychology. 41 (1): 49–100. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.485.1953. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734. PMID 10945922. S2CID 10096387.
  39. ^ Eysenck, M.; Derakshan, N. (2011). "New perspectives in attentional control theory". Personality and Individual Differences. 50 (7): 955–960. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.019.
  40. ^ a b Pashler, H.; Jonston, J.; Ruthruff, E. (2001). "Attention and performance". Annu. Rev. Psychol. 52: 629–651. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.629. PMID 11148320. S2CID 45005.
  41. ^ Chiesa, A.; Serretti, A. (27 November 2009). "A systematic review of neurobiological and clinical features of mindfulness meditations". Psychological Medicine. 40 (8): 1239–1252. doi:10.1017/S0033291709991747. PMID 19941676. S2CID 5818378.
  42. ^ Zeidan, Fadel; Johnson, Susan K.; Diamond, Bruce J.; David, Zhanna; Goolkasian, Paula (1 June 2010). "Mindfulness meditation improves cognition: Evidence of brief mental training". Consciousness and Cognition. 19 (2): 597–605. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.03.014. PMID 20363650. S2CID 17661562.
  43. ^ a b Anderson, N.; Lau, M.; Segal, Z.; Bishop, S. (2007). "Mindfulness-based stress reduction and attentional control". Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy. 14 (6): 449–463. doi:10.1002/cpp.544.
  44. ^ Farb, Norman AS; Saab, Bechara J.; Walsh, Kathleen Marie (2019). "Effects of a Mindfulness Meditation App on Subjective Well-Being: Active Randomized Controlled Trial and Experience Sampling Study". JMIR Mental Health. 6 (1): e10844. doi:10.2196/10844. PMC 6329416. PMID 30622094.
  45. ^ Westermann, Gert; Mareschal, Denis; Johnson, Mark H.; Sirois, Sylvain; Spratling, Michael W.; Thomas, Michael S.C. (2007). "Neuroconstructivism". Developmental Science. 10 (1): 75–83. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00567.x. PMID 17181703.
  46. ^ Scerif, G. (2010). "Attention trajectories, mechanisms and outcomes: at the interface between developing cognition and environment". Developmental Science. 13 (6): 805–812. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01013.x. PMID 20977552.
  47. ^ Kannass, K. N.; Oakes, L. M. (2008). "The development of attention and its relations to language in infancy and toddlerhood". Journal of Cognition and Development. 9 (2): 222–246. doi:10.1080/15248370802022696. S2CID 144512803.
  48. ^ Rose, S. A.; Feldman, J. F.; Jankowski, J. J. (2009). "A Cognitive Approach to the Development of Early Language". Child Development. 80 (1): 134–150. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01250.x. PMC 2780017. PMID 19236397.
  49. ^ McVay, J.; Kane, M. (2009). "Conducting the train of thought: Working memory capacity, goal neglect, and mind wandering in an executive-control task". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 35 (1): 196–204. doi:10.1037/a0014104. PMC 2750806. PMID 19210090.
  50. ^ Robinson-Riegler, Bridget (2011). Cognitive psychology: Applying the science of the mind. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Inc. pp. 130–133. ISBN 978-0-205-05006-2.
  51. ^ Siegel M, Donner TH, Oostenveld R, Fries P, Engel AK (Mar 2008). "Neuronal synchronization along the dorsal visual pathway reflects the focus of spatial attention". Neuron. 60 (4): 709–719. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.09.010. hdl:2066/71012. PMID 19038226. S2CID 19010227.
  52. ^ Gregoriou GG, Gotts SJ, Zhou H, Desimone R (Mar 2009). "High-frequency, long-range coupling between prefrontal and visual cortex during attention". Science. 324 (5931): 1207–1210. Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1207G. doi:10.1126/science.1171402. PMC 2849291. PMID 19478185.
  53. ^ Baldauf D, Desimone R (Mar 2014). "Neural mechanisms of object-based attention". Science. 344 (6182): 424–427. Bibcode:2014Sci...344..424B. doi:10.1126/science.1247003. PMID 24763592. S2CID 34728448.
  54. ^ Mangun, George R. (2012). The Neuroscience of Attention. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
  55. ^ Egeth, H.; Yantis, S. (1997). "Visual attention: Control, representation, and time course". Annu. Rev. Psychol. 48: 269–297. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.269. PMID 9046562. S2CID 9358323.
  56. ^ Reynolds, J.; Chelazzi, L. (2004). "Attentional modulation of visual processing". Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 27: 611–647. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131039. PMID 15217345.
  57. ^ Folk, C.; Remington, R.; Wright, J. (1994). "The structure of attentional control: Contingent attentional capture by apparent motion, abrupt onset, and color". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 20 (2): 317–329. doi:10.1037/0096-1523.20.2.317. PMID 8189195.
  58. ^ Bear, Connors, Paradiso, Mark, Barry, Michael (2007). Neuroscience Exploring the Brain. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781760034.
  59. ^ Linnell, Karina J.; Serge Caparos (18 July 2011). "Perceptual and Cognitive Load interact to Control the Spatial Focus of Attention". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 5. 37 (5): 1643–1648. doi:10.1037/a0024669. PMID 21767051.
  60. ^ Conway, A.; Cowan, N.; Bunting, M. (2001). "The cocktail party phenomenon revisited: The importance of WM capacity". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 8 (2): 331–335. doi:10.3758/bf03196169. PMID 11495122.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Mangun, George R. (2012). The Neuroscience of Attention. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
  • Bear, Mark; Connors, Barry; Paradiso, Michael (2007). Neuroscience Exploring the Brain. Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781760034.
  • Linnell, Karina J.; Serge Caparos (18 July 2011). "Perceptual and Cognitive Load interact to Control the Spatial Focus of Attention". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 5. 37 (5): 1643–1648. doi:10.1037/a0024669. PMID 21767051.
[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to Attentional control.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Attentional_control&oldid=1262276039"