Jump to content

Sex assignment

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about sex assignment in humans. For sex assignment in other animals, see sexing.
"AGAB" redirects here. For the enzyme, see AgaB.

Sex assignment (also known as gender assignment[1][2]) is the discernment of an infant's sex, typically made at birth based on an examination of the baby's external genitalia by a healthcare provider such as a midwife, nurse, or physician.[3] In the vast majority of cases (99.95%), sex is assigned unambiguously at birth. However, in about 1 in 2000 births, the baby's genitalia may not clearly indicate male or female, necessitating additional diagnostic steps, and deferring sex assignment.[4][5]

In most countries the healthcare provider's determination, along with other details of the birth, is by law recorded on an official document and submitted to the government for later issuance of a birth certificate and for other legal purposes.[6]

The prevalence of intersex conditions, where a baby's sex characteristics do not conform strictly to typical definitions of male or female, ranges between 0.018% and 1.7%.[7][8][9] While some intersex conditions result in genital ambiguity (approximately 0.02% to 0.05% of births[4]), others present genitalia that are distinctly male or female, which may delay the recognition of an intersex condition until later in life.[10][11]

Societally and medically, it is generally assumed that a person's gender identity will align with the sex assigned at birth, making them cisgender. However, for a minority, assigned sex and gender identity do not coincide, leading to transgender identity experiences. When assigning sex to intersex individuals, some healthcare providers may consider the gender identity that most people with a similar intersex condition develop, although such assignments may be revised as the individual matures.[2][12]

The use of surgical or hormonal interventions to reinforce sex assignments in intersex individuals without informed consent is considered a violation of human rights, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.[13][2][14][15]

Terminology

Sex assignment refers to the identification of an infant's sex at birth, typically based on observable physical characteristics. This is also known as gender assignment.[2][16]

In clinical and medical contexts, terms such as "birth-assigned sex" or "birth-assigned gender" are used to describe the sex identified at birth, while "assigned sex" and "assigned gender" may also refer to any subsequent reassignments, especially common among intersex individuals.

The terminology has evolved across various editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) maintained by the American Psychiatric Association. Initially, the third edition of the DSM referred to "anatomic sex".[17] By the fourth edition in 1994, the term "assigned sex" was introduced, with subsequent editions also using "biological sex" and "natal gender". The latest revision in 2022 streamlined the language to consistently use "sex assignment".[18][2][19]

A 2006 consensus statement on intersex conditions also adopted the terms "assigned sex" and "assigned gender". Sex is assigned as either male or female, leading to specific terms:[12][2][20]

Assigned male at birth
A person of any age and irrespective of current gender whose sex was assigned as male at birth. Often shortened to AMAB. Synonyms include male assigned at birth (MAAB) and designated male at birth (DMAB).[21][22]
Assigned female at birth
A person of any age and irrespective of current gender whose sex was assigned as female at birth. Often shortened to AFAB. Synonyms include female assigned at birth (FAAB) and designated female at birth (DFAB).[21][22]
AGAB
Acronym for assigned gender at birth.[23]

More visible adoption of the terminology of sex assignment has led to public debate and criticism.[24] Mathematician Alan Sokal and biologist Richard Dawkins have argued against the "assigned at birth" terminology. In a 2024 op-ed for The Boston Globe, they contended that sex is an "objective biological reality" determined at conception and observed at birth, rather than assigned. They say that using "assigned" terminology, which they view as an example of "social constructionism gone amok", distorts scientific facts and could undermine trust in medical institutions.[25]

There is a consensus in the use of the term "sex assignment" for newborns with intersex conditions;[20] observed chromosomal sex and assigned sex may intentionally differ for medical reasons (based upon predictions of psychosocial and psychosexual health in later life).[26]

Assignment in cases of infants with intersex traits, or cases of trauma

Main articles: Intersex medical interventions and History of intersex surgery
Intersex topics
Intersex flag
Human rights and legal issues
Medicine and biology
Society and culture
History and events
Rights by country
See also

Observation or recognition of an infant's sex may be complicated in the case of intersex infants and children and in cases of early trauma. In such cases, the infant may be assigned male or female, and may receive intersex surgery to confirm that assignment. These medical interventions have increasingly been seen as a human rights violation due to their unnecessary nature and the potential for lifelong complications.[27][28][14]

The Phall-O-Meter satirizes clinical assessments of appropriate clitoris and penis length at birth, and the definition of ambiguous genitalia. It is based on research published by Suzanne Kessler.

Cases of trauma include the famous John/Joan case, where sexologist John Money claimed successful reassignment from male to female of a 17-month-old boy whose penis was destroyed during circumcision. However, this claim was later shown to be largely false. The subject, David Reimer, later identified as a man.[29]

The number of births with ambiguous genitals is in the range of 1 in 2,000 to 1 in 4,500 (0.05% to 0.02%).[4] Typical examples would be an unusually prominent clitoris in an otherwise apparently typical girl, or complete cryptorchidism in an otherwise apparently typical boy. In most of these cases, a sex is tentatively assigned and the parents told that tests will be performed to confirm the apparent sex. Typical tests in this situation might include a pelvic ultrasound to determine the presence of a uterus, a testosterone or 17α-hydroxyprogesterone level, and/or a karyotype. In some of these cases a pediatric endocrinologist is consulted to confirm the tentative sex assignment. The expected assignment is usually confirmed within hours to a few days in these cases.

Some infants are born with enough ambiguity that assignment becomes a more drawn-out process of multiple tests and intensive education of the parents about sexual differentiation. In some of these cases, it is clear that the child will face physical difficulties or social stigma as they grow up, and deciding upon the sex of assignment involves weighing the advantages and disadvantages of either assignment. Intersex activists have criticised "normalising" procedures performed on infants and children, who are unable to provide informed consent.[28]

History

In European societies, Roman law, post-classical canon law, and later common law, referred to a person's sex as male, female, or hermaphrodite, with legal rights as male or female depending on the characteristics that appeared most dominant. Under Roman law, a hermaphrodite had to be classed as either male or female.[30] The 12th-century Decretum Gratiani states that "Whether a hermaphrodite may witness a testament, depends on which sex prevails".[31][32] The foundation of common law, the 16th Century Institutes of the Lawes of England, described how a hermaphrodite could inherit "either as male or female, according to that kind of sexe which doth prevaile."[33][34] Legal cases where sex assignment was placed in doubt have been described over the centuries.

With the medicalization of intersex, criteria for assignment have evolved over the decades, as clinical understanding of biological factors and diagnostic tests have improved, as surgical techniques have changed and potential complications have become clearer, and in response to the outcomes and opinions of adults who have grown up with various intersex conditions.

Before the 1950s, assignment was based almost entirely on the appearance of the external genitalia. Although physicians recognized that there were conditions in which the apparent secondary sexual characteristics could develop contrary to the person's sex, and conditions in which the gonadal sex did not match that of the external genitalia, their ability to understand and diagnose such conditions in infancy was too poor to attempt to predict future development in most cases.

In the 1950s, endocrinologists developed a basic understanding of the major intersex conditions such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), androgen insensitivity syndrome, and mixed gonadal dysgenesis. The discovery of cortisone allowed survival of infants with severe CAH for the first time. New hormone tests and karyotypes allowed more confident diagnosis in infancy and prediction of future development.

Sex assignment became more than choosing a sex of rearing, but also began to include surgical treatment. Undescended testes could be retrieved. A greatly enlarged clitoris could be amputated to the usual size, but attempts to create a penis were unsuccessful. John Money and others controversially believed that children were more likely to develop a gender identity that matched sex of rearing than might be determined by chromosomes, gonads, or hormones. The resulting medical model was termed the "Optimal gender model".[35]

Challenges to requirements for sex assignment

In recent years, the perceived need to legally assign sex is increasingly being challenged by transgender, transsexual, and intersex people.[36][37] A report for the Dutch Ministry of Security and Justice states "Gender increasingly seems to be perceived as a 'sensitive' identity feature, but so far is not regarded, nor protected as such in privacy regulations".[36] Australian government guidelines state that "departments and agencies that collect sex and/or gender information must not collect information unless it is necessary for, or directly related to, one or more of the agency's functions or activities"[38]

Sex registration was introduced in the Netherlands in 1811 due to gender-specific rights and responsibilities, such as military conscription.[36] Many gender-specific provisions in legislation no longer exist, but the provisions remain for rationales that include "speed of identification procedures".[36]

References

  1. ^ "gender assignment". APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 6 June 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e f American Psychiatric Association, ed. (2022). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth edition, text revision ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. p. 511. ISBN 978-0-89042-575-6.
  3. ^ Rathus SA, Nevid JS, Rathus LF (2010). Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity. Allyn & Bacon. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-205-78606-0. Archived from the original on 6 June 2021. Retrieved 5 December 2019.
  4. ^ a b c Selma Feldman Witchel (2018). "Disorders of Sex Development". Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 48: 90–102. doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2017.11.005. ISSN 1521-6934. PMC 5866176. PMID 29503125.
  5. ^ Dhamankar Rupin (9 April 2020). "Fetal Sex Results of Noninvasive Prenatal Testing and Differences With Ultrasonography". Obstet. Gynecol. 135 (5): 1198–1206. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000003791. PMC 7170435. PMID 32282607. S2CID 215758793.
  6. ^ "Birth and Death Registration Completeness". Demographic and Social Statistics. United Nations. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
  7. ^ "Intersex population figures". Intersex Human Rights Australia. 16 September 2019 [28 September 2013]. Archived from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  8. ^ Sax, Leonard (2002). "How common is intersex? a response to Anne Fausto-Sterling". Journal of Sex Research. 39 (3). Scholarly Publications: 174–178. doi:10.1080/00224490209552139. PMID 12476264. S2CID 33795209. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 27 June 2020.
  9. ^ Blackless, Melanie; Charuvastra, Anthony; Derryck, Amanda; Fausto-Sterling, Anne; Lauzanne, Karl; Lee, Ellen (2000). "How Sexually Dimorphic Are We? Review and Synthesis". Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Biochemistry. American Journal of Human Biology. 12 (2): 151–166. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(200003/04)12:2<151::AID-AJHB1>3.0.CO;2-F. PMID 11534012. S2CID 453278.
  10. ^ Mieszczak, J; Houk, CP; Lee, PA (August 2009). "Assignment of the sex of rearing in the neonate with a disorder of sex development". Curr Opin Pediatr. 21 (4): 541–7. doi:10.1097/mop.0b013e32832c6d2c. PMC 4104182. PMID 19444113.
  11. ^ "Answers to Your Questions About Individuals With Intersex Conditions" (PDF). www.apa.org. American Psychological Association. 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 May 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  12. ^ a b Hardacker, Cecilia; Ducheny, Kelly; Houlberg, Magda, eds. (2019). Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Health and Aging. Cham: Springer. p. 3. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95031-0. ISBN 978-3-319-95031-0. S2CID 52986156. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
  13. ^ Witchel, Selma Feldman (2018). "Disorders of Sex Development". Best Practice & Research. Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 48: 90–102. doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2017.11.005. ISSN 1521-6934. PMC 5866176. PMID 29503125.
  14. ^ a b UN Committee against Torture; UN Committee on the Rights of the Child; UN Committee on the Rights of People with Disabilities; UN Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and other Cruel Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; Juan Méndez, Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment; Dainius Pῡras, Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health; Dubravka Šimonoviæ, Special Rapporteur on violence against women its causes and consequences; Marta Santos Pais, Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General on Violence against Children; African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights; Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (24 October 2016). "Intersex Awareness Day – Wednesday 26 October. End violence and harmful medical practices on intersex children and adults, UN and regional experts urge". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (Press release). Archived from the original on 21 November 2016.
  15. ^ World Health Organization (2015). Sexual health, human rights and the law. Geneva: World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-156498-4.
  16. ^ Raveenthiran, V (2017). "Neonatal Sex Assignment in Disorders of Sex Development: A Philosophical Introspection". Journal of Neonatal Surgery. 6 (3): 58. doi:10.21699/jns.v6i3.604. ISSN 2226-0439. PMC 5593477. PMID 28920018.
  17. ^ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM III) (3rd ed.). 1980. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780521315289.dsm-iii (inactive 1 November 2024). PDF Download. Archived from the original on 16 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2023 – via DSM Library.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  18. ^ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV) (4th ed.). 1994. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890420614.dsm-iv. ISBN 0-89042-061-0 – via DSM Library.
  19. ^ First, Michael B.; Yousif, Lamyaa H.; Clarke, Diana E.; Wang, Philip S.; Gogtay, Nitin; Appelbaum, Paul S. (2022). "DSM-5-TR: overview of what's new and what's changed". World Psychiatry. 21 (2): 218–219. doi:10.1002/wps.20989. PMC 9077590. PMID 35524596.
  20. ^ a b Hughes, I A; Houk, C; Ahmed, S F; Lee, P A (July 2006). "Consensus statement on management of intersex disorders". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 91 (7): 554–563. doi:10.1136/adc.2006.098319. ISSN 0003-9888. PMC 2082839. PMID 16624884.
  21. ^ a b Harrington, Lee (May 2016). Traversing Gender: Understanding Transgender Realities. Mystic Productions Press. pp. 50, 56. ISBN 978-1-942733-83-6. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016.
  22. ^ a b Serano, Julia (October 2013). Excluded: Making Feminist and Queer Movements More Inclusive. Seal Press. p. 301. ISBN 978-1-58005-504-8. Archived from the original on 21 December 2016.
  23. ^ "Definition of 'AGAB'". Collins Dictionary. Archived from the original on 3 August 2024. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
  24. ^ "The Debate About Sex Assigned at Birth | Psychology Today United Kingdom". www.psychologytoday.com. Retrieved 30 August 2024.
  25. ^ Sokal, Alan; Dawkins, Richard (8 April 2024). "Sex and gender: The medical establishment's reluctance to speak honestly about biological reality". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 8 April 2024. Retrieved 17 May 2024.
  26. ^ Markosyan, Renata; Ahmed, S. Faisal (30 December 2017). "Sex Assignment in Conditions Affecting Sex Development". Journal of Clinical Research in Pediatric Endocrinology. 9 (Suppl 2): 106–112. doi:10.4274/jcrpe.2017.S009. ISSN 1308-5727. PMC 5790324. PMID 29280745.
  27. ^ United Nations; Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (2015). Free & Equal Campaign Fact Sheet: Intersex (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016.
  28. ^ a b Cabral, Mauro; Carpenter, Morgan, eds. (2014). "Intersex Issues in the International Classification of Diseases: a revision". Archived from the original on 29 October 2015.
  29. ^ Colapinto, John (3 June 2004). "Why did David Reimer commit suicide?". Slate Magazine. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 20 March 2022.
  30. ^ Roller, Lynn E. (1997). "The Ideology of the Eunuch Priest". Gender & History. 9 (3): 542–559. doi:10.1111/1468-0424.00075. S2CID 143133728.
  31. ^ "Decretum Gratiani (Kirchenrechtssammlung)". Bayerische StaatsBibliothek (Bavarian State Library). 5 February 2009. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016.
  32. ^ Raming, Ida; Macy, Gary; Bernard J, Cook (2004). A History of Women and Ordination. Scarecrow Press. p. 113.
  33. ^ E Coke, The First Part of the Institutes of the Laws of England, Institutes 8.a. (1st Am. Ed. 1812) (16th European ed. 1812).
  34. ^ Greenberg, Julie (1999). "Defining Male and Female: Intersexuality and the Collision Between Law and Biology". Arizona Law Review. 41: 277–278. SSRN 896307.
  35. ^ Australian Senate; Community Affairs References Committee (October 2013). Involuntary or coerced sterilisation of intersex people in Australia. Canberra: Community Affairs References Committee. ISBN 978-1-74229-917-4. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015.
  36. ^ a b c d van den Brink, Marjolein; Tigchelaar, Jet (2014). "M/F and beyond, Gender registration by the state and the legal position of transgender persons. English summary". Ministerie van Veiligheid & Justitie. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
  37. ^ Chan, Emily (26 May 2015). "Get gender off birth certificates, B.C. activists argue". CTV News. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
  38. ^ Australia; Attorney General's Department (2013). Australian Government Guidelines on the Recognition of Sex and Gender. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sex_assignment&oldid=1258911662"